Ted Janssen
University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands

At the beginning of the 21st century, we can look back on the history, think about the present status and discuss the open problems of crystallography. The talk will start with an overview of the achievements of the past century. Due to the development of new experimental and theoretical tools crystallography has obtained the status of a central science, not only from the intellectual point of view, but also for applications. The knowledge of the structure is essential for the study of physical properties. A brief history of this development will be given with emphasis on new tools, biological systems and aperiodic crystals. Finally a number of open problems will be discussed.

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Denis Gratias and Marianne Quiquandon
IRCP Chimie-ParisTech 11 rue P. et M. Curie 75005 Paris, France.

The introduction  by Janner and Janssen[1] in the 70s of N-dimensional crystallography for describing incommensurate phases and, later, quasicrystals, has generated an important research activity on the new meaning to give to basic concepts like space symmetries, both orientational and translational. In fact none of the incommensurate phases and quasicrystals show symmetries that superimpose exactly the object onto itself so that this concept should take another signification in these compounds. The present talk will first give a very short reminder of group action theory and its application to N-dimensional crystallography. Then, following Bienenstock and Ewald [2] and more recently Mermin [3], it will be shown that the concept of symmetry in N-dimensional crystallography is much better understood in reciprocal space (where experimentalists usually determine the space group) than in direct space. There, the usual notion of superimposing an object on itself by symmetry is  replaced by the more subtle notion of equivalence where two objects are equivalent with respect to a given property if they are undistinguishable under any physical measurements of that property.

References
[1] A. Janner and T. Janssen (1977), Phys. Rev B15, 643; see also P.M. de Wolff (1974), Acta Cryst. A30, 777.
[2] A. Bienenstock and P. P. Ewald (1962), Acta Cryst. 15, 1253.
[3] D. Mermin (1999) in Quasicrystals - the state of the art (second edition), ed. D.P. DiVincenzo and P.J. Steinhardt, World Scientific, Series on Directions in Condensed Matter Physics, vol 16,pp. 137-195.

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The use of local fivefold symmetry in Islamic tilings started in the 11th century. Examples of such tilings are discussed and the rules employed in these tilings are presented. It is demonstrated how a periodic pattern can be transformed into a locally aperiodic Penrose tiling pattern which most efficiently solves the difficult problem of the mathematical aperiodic tiling. Most remarkably, these tilings match with crystal diffraction patterns which exhibit fivefold symmetry. Inevitably, this topic reminds us of the flowering of scientific brilliance in Islam from the ninth to the thirteenth century - a period often described as the "golden age" of Islamic science.

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Ashwini Nangia

School of Chemistry, University of Hyderabad, India
ashwini.nangia@gmail.com

About 40% of marketed drugs have low solubility, and almost double that number of drug candidates (80-90%) will fail in late stage R&D pipeline due to poor solubility. A drug's behaviour depends on much more than the molecular structure. This talk will cover solubility improvement strategies based on supramolecular modification of APIs through hydrogen bonding and crystal design.

• Crystal engineering and supramolecular synthon rules for API-coformer pairing based on CSD statistics
• Formation of cocrystal, eutectic or solid solution depending on symmetry and shape of partner molecules
• X-ray crystal structures of API cocrystals and salts and their relationship in solubility enhancement
• A few case studies of BCS class II/IV drugs
• Drawing conclusions and thoughts on how to thicken the pipeline of drugs

Representative case studies from our group:
(1) Solubility Advantage of Amorphous Drugs and Pharmaceutical Cocrystals. Cryst. Growth Des. 2011, 2662-2679.
(2) New Polymorphs of Curcumin. Chem. Comm. 2011, 5013-5015.
(3) Fast Dissolving Curcumin Cocrystals. Cryst. Growth Des. 2011, 4135-4145.
(4) Stable Cocrystals of Temozolomide. Chem. - An Asian J. 2012, 2274-2285.
(5) Solid-State Form Screen of Cardiosulfa. Chem. - An Asian J. 2013, 1551-1568.
(6) Andrographolide: Solving Chemical Instability and Poor Solubility by Means of Cocrystals. Chem.- An Asian J. 2013, 3032-3041.
(7) Eutectics as Improved Pharmaceutical Materials. Chem. Commun. 2014, 906-923.
(8) Acemetacin Cocrystals and Salts. IUCrJ 2014, 136-150.
(9) A Novel Curcumin-Artemisinin Coamorphous Solid. RSC Adv. 2014, 58357-58361.
(10) Salts and Co-crystals of Theobromine. J. Chem. Sci. 2014, 1249-1264.
(11) Pentamorphs of Acedapsone. Cryst. Growth Des. 2014, dx.doi.org/10.1021/cg5010424.
(12) Preclinical BABE and TOX of Temozolomide-Succinic Acid cocrystal. Curr. Sci., in press. (hide | hide all)

Gérard Fauvet, Bruker France
Gerard.Fauvet@bruker-axs.fr

Bruker enthusiastically supports the IUCr initiatives and activities around IYCr2014 in assisting and organizing OpenLabs and Travelling Labs. It has been a great opportunity to meet many students around our instruments; in particular, the Travelling Lab in Morocco has been very successful thanks to the engagement and the organization of the AMC. Similar initiatives are scheduled in Algeria and Tunisia soon after the Rabat conference.

For several years, we have been also proud of our co-work with IUCr, through its "Crystallography in Africa" initiative, for organizing the free supplying and commissioning of diffractometers to some Sub-Saharan Universities.

Bruker and the IUCr are fully engaged together on several projects that we do intend to realize; our company kept numerous pre-owned instruments in good shape which could satisfy several laboratories ready for receiving such equipment, and we would be happy to evaluate any further opportunities.

We do want that the above-mentioned diffractometers are fully accessible to students, in order to give them an experience that will undoubtedly be very rewarding for their future career and especially toward industrial analysis.

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Dubravka Sisak Jung
DECTRIS; dubravka.sisak@dectris.com

Although the arrival of new materials and modern instrumentation significantly broadened the field of crystallography, it also created a significant regional gap in crystallography education. While these advances were successfully exploited in developed countries, they caused developing and less-privileged countries to lag even further behind. These differences could only be overcome with the joint forces of academia, instrumentation manufacturers and large-scale facilities.

DECTRIS, a leading manufacturer of X-ray detectors, contributed to this initiative twofold: with financial support of crystallography teaching, enabling admission-free participation, and by addressing the needs of a specific region, with a special focus on Africa. The outcomes of these efforts will be illustrated by the example of OpenFactory, a crystallography school organized by IUCr, IYCr, DECTRIS, STOE and Xenocs. This admission-free school gathered 20 international participants, of which 7 came from African countries, working in various fields of research. After being introduced to the basics of crystallography, diffraction and scattering, this theoretical knowledge was put into practice at STOE's and Xenocs' application laboratories. Such a hands-on experience with modern hardware and software enabled a solid foundation for further research of the participants. The international environment and the variety of research fields, scientific backgrounds and interests opened up possibilities for future projects and collaborations. The outcomes of these projects and DECTRIS' support will be briefly addressed.

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Becoming a member of IUCr as a seed to the growth of crystallography in Costa Rica and in Central America
Andrea Mariela Araya-Sibaja, Universidad de Costa Ricaand José Roberto Vega-Baudrit, LANOTEC-CeNAT-CONARE
andrea.araya@gmail.com

In Costa Rica, crystallography is still a very weak and unknown area; although we have excellent solid-state complementary techniques, the primary tool for crystallographic analysis is scarce. There are only three relatively new X-ray powder diffractometers; one of them is a desktop type. In general, they support research in many fields including geology, chemistry basics and applied agronomy, archeology, physics of surfaces, pharmaceuticals, nanoparticles, nanomaterials and other new materials. Nevertheless, at this moment in Costa Rica and throughout Central America there is no single-crystal X-ray diffractometer. In addition, crystallography has been limited to the use of X-ray diffraction as a simple solid-state characterization technique. Indeed, crystallography is generally referred to as diffractometry. The users are in some sense unconscious; they do not realize what crystallography is and how much can be done in this area.

What is Costa Rica doing in crystallography? Efforts have been made to improve our situation in crystallography. Last year in the frame of the IYCr celebration, we carried out four concrete actions:

1. The first School of Crystallization and Polymorphism, Costa Rica 2014 supported by the IUCr.
2. The National Competition Essay was dedicated to crystallography and was organized by the Foundation for the National Center for Science and Technology (CIENTEC).
3. The conformation of the Costa Rican Union of Crystallography (UCCr) promoted by the National Laboratory of Nanotechnology (LANOTEC).
4. The membership of Costa Rica to the IUCr supported by the National Center of Advanced Technology (CeNAT).

Currently, LANOTEC is promoting an important project for the region, the creation of the Central American node of crystallographic analysis of materials. This node aims to development crystallography in the region, contributing to sustainable development together with research and innovation. This project has the support of the Central American System for Research and Postgraduate (SICAR) that we already have in the region. This project became even more important after the first School of Crystallization and Polymorphism, Costa Rica 2014 by the significant Central American participation that we had.

What we expect as a member of the IUCr? As a result of the first School of Crystallization and Polymorphism, Costa Rica 2014, we conformed a group of local researchers on chemistry, material science and nanotechnology (supported by Professor Silvia Cuffini from Federal University of São Paulo, Brazil). This group obtained a local grant for a project research in crystallo-graphy. The project will support formal studies in crystallography and it is expected to attract young scientists to form the human resource that we need. This important step to improve crystallography in our country was possible by the IUCr. Hence, our expectations of being members are quite high. We expected to promote and strengthen international cooperation in crystallography with contributions from members of the IUCr; mainly to form our own human resource to build up crystallography in the country. Hence, we hope to continue with schools and participation in OpenLabs and even better, organize a regional OpenLab in Costa Rica. Thus, encourage the study and dissemination of crystallography not only in Costa Rica but also in the region and, produce international publication of crystallographic investigation of Costa Rica and Central America.

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Crystallography in Pakistan: Current Status and Future Prospects
Maqsood Ahmed, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan; maqsood.ahmed@iub.edu.pk
Iqbal Choudhary; iqbal.choudhary@iccs.edu

Crystallography is rapidly expanding in Pakistan. Interestingly, neutron diffraction techniques came much earlier than X-ray diffraction. The establishment of nuclear reactors in the early 1970s at Nilore, Islamabad gave physicists a chance to extensively exploit neutron diffraction methods and a series of papers were published in Acta Crystallographica, notably on Debye-Waller factors. The first single-crystal X-ray diffractometer (SCXRD) was installed at HEJ, University of Karachi in 1986. In 2008 and in 2010, two new SCXRD laboratories were established at universities in Lahore and Sargodha, which have published hundreds of new structures and trained a large number of students, thanks to generous funding by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan. Similarly, powder diffraction instruments have been installed at a number of universities and research centers in Pakistan. In 2011, the Pakistan Crystallographic Association was established through a sponsorship by the IUCr. In 2014, Pakistan served as a regional hub to celebrate the International Year of Crystallography. A South Asia summit meeting was held in Karachi which gathered delegates from around 40 countries. An OpenLab was conducted in which lectures and hands-on training was provided to 50 students from eight nationalities through funding from the IUCr and UNESCO. In the same year, Pakistan achieved another milestone by getting regular membership of the IUCr. In 2015, two new SCXRD laboratories are being established at public sector universities in Bahawalpur and Faisalabad. A couple of groups are working on protein crystallography, and one of them has recently collected their first diffraction data of a membrane protein at ELETTRA, Italy. Pakistan is also a partner in the under-construction SESAME synchrotron in Jordan. It is strongly encouraging through all means to produce a critical mass of crystallographers in the country.

Single-crystal X-ray diffraction facilities in Pakistan: (A) Small Molecular Structural Chemistry:
Currently in Pakistan three Single-Crystal X-ray Diffraction facilities, equipped with Bruker single-crystal X-ray diffractometers, are functioning. These facilities are located in:

1. H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry (International Center of Biological & Chemical Sciences, University of Karachi)
2. Chemistry Department, GC University, Lahore
3. Department of Physics, University of Sargodha.

All of these this facilities are offering service to other academic institutes and Industries throughout Pakistan and many international collaborators for single-crystal X-ray crystallographic studies of small organic (natural and synthetic), including metal complexes.

(B) Macromolecular Structural Chemistry:
Structural biology using X-ray diffraction has been initiated. The National Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE) and Dr. Panjwani Center for Molecular Medicine and Drug Research (PCMD) have established the protein expression and crystallization set-up. Both institutions are collaborating with various laboratories of the world for crystallographic data.

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Crystallography in Turkey
Süheyla Özbey
Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey; sozbey@hacettepe.edu.tr

Molecular structure determination started in the mid-1960s in Turkey, but crystallography related to mineralogy and powder diffraction was practised long ago. Crystal geometry and optics were taught in the Geology and Mineralogy Departments to prepare students for microscopic investigation of crystalline materials. In some departments, X-ray powder diffractometers were used for materials identification. In Physics and Chemistry Departments, crystal symmetry, physical and chemical properties of crystals were taught without structure analysis. In 1970, a molecular structure determination laboratory was established in the Department of Physics at Hacettepe University in Ankara and in 1992, the first four-circle diffractometer was installed at the same department, the only one in Turkey. Since then, this laboratory has become the leading centre of X-ray crystallography in the country. Today, most universities and research institutions in Turkey have groups pursuing molecular structure determination by crystallography.

Some laboratories running X-ray diffraction facilities exist as research infrastructure of the Applied Physics and Material Science Departments. In addition to these, there are many industrial institutions in Turkey including labs that perform powder diffraction for materials characterization and quality control.

Protein crystallography only started in the 2000s, but unfortunately still remains a less studied area in Turkey. In Biology or Chemistry Departments of some universities, the areas of specialization include molecular biology and cloning, protein isolation and characterization and 3D structure determination using synchrotron X-ray solution scattering and diffraction techniques. The Turkish Crystallographic Association (TCA) was established in 2001 to promote crystallography, raise scientific awareness and train young researchers. The TCA organizes biennial national meetings and workshops on different areas of crystallography. The Association is a member representing Turkey in the European Crystallographic Association and the IUCr.

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Crystallography in Uruguay
Leopoldo Suescun
Universidad de la Republica, Montevideo, Uruguay; leopoldo@fq.edu.uy

Uruguay is a country with a small population (~3.5 M), a very small scientific community (~1500 professional researchers including social sciences), only one State-run University and two Scientific Research Institutes (both in the biological sciences). In our small community, only two or three dozen professors or researchers are crystallographers or frequent users of crystallography. This group of crystallographers, together with a growing number of undergraduate and graduate students, are part of the "Red Uruguaya de Cristalografía" that had its first meeting on 12 December 2014 with the participation of 40 people (25 posters, 6 young scientists selected talks). In the academic community there are well-established groups performing physical, chemical and biological crystallography. All these groups own some piece of equipment and develop research in cooperation within or outside the region and routinely use synchrotron facilities in the Americas (Brazil, USA) and/or Europe (France). There is frequent use of crystallography (mainly powder diffraction) by geologists also in academia, but no expert mineralogist or geologist using X-ray diffraction as the main characterization technique. Regarding equipment, there are three powder diffractometers in operation in the State University (Universidad de la República), one recently acquired single-crystal diffractometer devoted to small-molecule crystallography (also at UdelaR) and one devoted to protein crystallography (at Institut Pasteur de Montevideo) accompanied by the required automated crystal growth and evaluation equipment. There is also one texture diffractometer in operation (UdelaR). All this equipment is available to academia and industry. Powder diffraction is routinely used by industry in the pharmaceutical, mineralogical and food sectors with the main purpose of qualitative analysis, quality control of imported goods or characterization of defective products. Some use for conservation of cultural heritage has also been registered. Training in crystallography is routinely given at UdelaR in a specific Crystallography course, mainly for chemistry and biology students; however, basic concepts and overview of application of X-ray diffraction are also included in Materials Science, Chemical Physics or Chemistry courses in at least half a dozen graduate and undergraduate courses.

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Development and status of crystallography in Venezuela
Graciela Díaz de Delgado and José Miguel Delgado
Universidad de Los Andes, Mérida, Venezuela; diaz@ula.ve

The pioneering work of Ernesto Galloni in Argentina in the 1930s can be considered a starting point for crystallography in Latin America. Interest and experience with X-rays in Venezuela dates back to just a few months after their discovery. The news of the discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen in 1895 was received in Venezuela with great enthusiasm, especially by the medical community. Antonio Pedro Mora, Venezuelan chemist and inventor, presented on 26 April 1896 an X-ray generator which he designed and built with the help of Guillermo Delgado Palacios, a physician and chemist. By the end of 1899, the first commercial X-ray machine (Edison) was purchased in Maracaibo and was used intensively for medical purposes. Mora was the founder in August of 1895 of Chemistry studies at the School of Engineering of Universidad Central de Venezuela (UCV) in Caracas and was Director of the "Laboratorio Nacional", a laboratory founded in 1890 by the prominent chemist Vicente Marcano. This laboratory became an important center for analytical services and part of the work included studies of minerals from different regions of the country by conventional methods used in mineralogy. People working in this lab were also instrumental in creating the first School of Chemistry in the country at UCV.

Since science undergraduate degree programs in Venezuelan Universities have required carrying out a research project for two semesters, writing a thesis and making a public presentation of the work before a committee, chemistry and physics degree programs incorporated characterization by powder and single crystal diffraction. Even after graduate degree programs started and began to consolidate, undergraduate degree research in Crystallography maintains its importance. In 1967, Argentinians Mario Amzel, Leo Becka and Sergio Baggio were hired to work at UCV and started supervising undergraduate degree theses based on crystallographic work. Eldrys Rodulfo de Gil, after graduation from UCV and University of Wisconsin, founded the Crystallography Laboratory of ULA (Mérida, Venezuela), which last year celebrated its 45th anniversary. In recent years, this laboratory has been central to teaching the new generation of crystallographers in Venezuela and in neighboring countries such as Colombia. Several crystallography laboratories in the country address a variety of structural and characterization problems. Among them are the research laboratories at IVIC (Caracas and Maracaibo), UCV and USB in Caracas, UDO-Cumaná, UNEXPO-PO, as well as the laboratories in the oil (PDVSA-INTEVEP) and aluminum industries.

In this contribution, a general review of the current studies being carried out in Venezuela using diffraction techniques will be presented. In spite of some difficulties and economic hardships, Venezuelan crystallographers continue to work enthusiastically on materials with applications in catalysis, organic and organometallic synthesis, pharmaceutically related compounds and natural products, among other materials.

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Abdelaziz El Jazouli
Chemistry Department - URAC17, Faculty of Sciences Ben M'Sik, University Hassan II, Casablanca
Chemistry Department, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina

The main aim of crystal chemistry is to determine the relationship between crystal structure and physical properties of crystalline materials. It describes the principles governing the distribution of atoms within the structure and the nature of the chemical bonding. From this analysis the nature of the material such as insulator, semiconductor, conductor and iono-covalent character can be determined, and its physical and chemical properties can be inferred. Assuming the definition of Corbridge [1], "normal" phosphates refer to compounds in which the P atoms are tetrahedrally surrounded by four oxygen atoms. [PO₄] tetrahedra can be isolated or connected to each other by sharing corners to form condensed phosphates [2]. The various crystal structures of the phosphates lead to the materials with applications in several industrial fields. To illustrate the relationships between crystal structure and properties of phosphates, this presentation will focus on examples of compounds in which [PO₄] tetrahedra are connected with [MO_n] polyhedra (where M is a metal). Most of these phosphates have found applications as cathodes for rechargeable lithium ion batteries, low thermal expansion ceramics, composite ceramics, non-linear optics, lasers, LEDs, and, last but not least, biomaterials [3].

References
[1] D. E. C. Corbridge, Phosphorus, An Outline of its Chemistry, Biochemistry and Technology, Elsevier Ed. Amsterdam (1985).
[2] M. T. Averbuch-Pouchot and A. Durif, Topics in Phosphate Chemistry, World Scientific Ed. Singapore (1996).
[3] "Les Phosphates à l'aube du XXIème siècle", Collectif book, Coordination: G. Le Flem, Ed. OCP (2013).

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Phosphate, which is the first source of all products containing phosphorus, is mainly used as fertilizer. At the beginning of the last century, demand for phosphates and fertilizers increased rapidly because of the growth in world population. Many phosphate industries have been developed to ensure global food security. This talk will give an overview of OCP's experience in the phosphate industry, which started with mining operations in Khouribga and continues with the transformation of phosphate at Safi and Jorf Lasfar chemical platforms. We will also present OCP's activities and mixed products of phosphates and derivatives like DAP (binary fertilizer), TSP (full phosphate fertilizer), MAP (binary fertilizer consisting of phosphorus and nitrogen agents) and NPK (ternary fertilizer).  OCP also makes products based on high performance and a sustainable agriculture approach. The last part will be reserved to the OCP innovation and R&D. We will give information about:

• R&D strategy and organization able to give researchers the necessary flexibility to deploy the R&D program.
• Overview of R&D topics and R&D program.

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A. Ibanez, J. Zaccaro and B. Ménaert
Institut Néel, CNRS and University Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France; alain.ibanez@grenoble.cnrs.fr

We will present the growth of several families of phosphate crystals, which exhibit remarkable properties such as high nonlinear optical efficiencies and piezoelectricity. As phosphate materials do not melt congruently due generally to partial decompositions at high temperatures, their crystal growth is performed below their melting temperature by involving solvents. We will first introduce different types of standard methods for the crystal growth of phosphates in solution at low (close to room temperature) and high temperatures (up to 1000 °C). Indeed, through several examples taken from our studies at CNRS-Grenoble, we will illustrate techniques such as slow cooling, temperature gradient and flux methods for the growth of hybrid organic inorganic salts, potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP) and crystals of the potassium titanyl phosphate family (KTP). The growth of these crystals is motivated by their remarkable properties for nonlinear optics based on their non-centrosymmetric structures that allow the development of highly efficient optical frequency conversion devices like optical parametric oscillators. In addition to these standard solution growth techniques, some more particular ones will be also presented. Indeed, solution crystal growth at low temperature, carried out under typical conditions at low supersaturations of the solutions (relative supersaturations σ of around 1%), exhibit low growth rates, less than 1 mm/day. By applying an overheating and/or an ultrasonic treatment of the solution, it is possible to inhibit the spurious nucleation that takes place at higher supersaturations. Thus, through this type of treatment of the solution during the crystal growth process, higher supersaturations can be applied, σ around 10-30%, and thus increase significantly the growth rates, over 1 cm/day. These rapid crystal growths will be illustrated in the cases of potassium dihydrogen phosphate and hybrid organic-inorganic salts.

Finally, hydrothermal techniques will be presented in the case of aluminium and gallium orthophosphate crystals, which are isomorphous to α-quartz. These crystals exhibit promising piezoelectric properties for the development of resonators and physical sensors under extreme conditions (high temperatures and pressures). Moreover, for all of these phosphate crystal growths, we will give examples of industrial processes, particularly for the growth of KDP, KTP and GaPO₄ crystals.

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G. Michael Blackburn, Matthew W. Bowler, Yi Jin and Jon Waltho
Krebs Institute, Molecular Biology, University of Sheffield, UK; g.m.blackburn@sheffield.ac.uk

Scientific enquiry about the origin of life on earth has taken many forms over many centuries. My focus on the uniqueness of phosphorus follows a challenging and original statement by my Cambridge mentor Lord Todd FRS, Nobel Laureate in Kyoto in 1982: "Where there's Life there's Phosphorus".

In this IYCr Legacy Lecture, I shall seek to justify my lecture title claim from both ends. From a prebiotic beginning I shall ask: How did planet Earth get enough phosphorus to support life? There is no place more appropriate than Morocco from where to survey whether earth has sufficient reserves of phosphorus to sustain life into the next millennium. Then from today's knowledge of the amazing diversity of functions for phosphate in cellular organization and activity, I shall ask: How do we now perceive the uniqueness of phosphate for its multiple roles in life? Today, we know that the central paradox of phosphate in the biosphere is the contrast between the amazing stability of phosphate esters that is fundamental for their role in the integrity of our genes set against the secure compartmentalization of key metabolites to avoid life-threatening dispersal in our hydrosphere. Phosphate gives DNA its amazing stability, with a half-life of the phosphate diester backbone greater than the life of our universe. That contrasts with the remarkable power of enzymatic phosphorylation/dephosphorylation to make possible the control of cellular behaviour on the millisecond time scale needed for cellular activity. [I shall ask, if time permits, whether there was any alternative to phosphate for evolution of terrestrial life.]

Above all, I shall explore how evolution has developed enzymes capable of reducing the inherent stability of phosphate esters by a factor approaching 10²¹. They embody a power of catalysis unsurpassed anywhere else in life, as wonderfully revealed in thousands of protein structures having phosphate ligands (the Protein Data Bank has 4145 structure entries for PO₄ to date).

Reference: M.W. Bowler et al., New Journal of Chemistry, 2010, 34, 784-794.

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Crystallography in Ivory Coast

The Laboratory of Crystallography and Molecular Physics (LaCPM) of the University Félix Houphouët-Boigny of Cocody (Ivory Coast) was created in 1974 by Professor Jacques Lapasset. Since this date, the activities of research and teaching are led in our university and precisely within the department of physics. It is necessary to note that our university has never had a diffractometer. All our measurements have been done either in Marseille or in Montpellier. Today, we do our measurements in Marseille and in Nancy. Currently, our laboratory is composed of two professors, four masters of conferences, four attending masters, a helper and an engineer. There are five students in thesis and five in master. A first team leads his activities of research on the structural determination of derivatives of benzimidazole and the modelling of their biological activities and also on the modelling of the electronic density of coumarin. A second team works on potassium deficiency in oil palms and nitrogen and water deficiency in corn by laser-induced fluorescence. The third team works on the quantification of the electronic states of diatomic molecules such as NaK.

With IYCr, Ivory Coast is going to receive thanks to IUCr and Bruker, a single-crystal diffractometer and a powder diffractometer. With this acquisition, Ivory Coast will become a centre of excellence for crystallographic studies in West Africa. It opens new perspectives in the domain of the mining research because Ivory Coast possesses important layers. In the domain of the pharmacopeia of Ivory Coast, these devices will bring an answer to the problem of the structural determination of the active molecules of our plants.

We work in collaboration with the Organic Chemistry laboratory, the Chemistry laboratory of the inorganic materials, the laboratory of the Pharmaceutical Sciences and the laboratory of Biochemistry of our university. We also work with the Organic Chemistry laboratory of the University of Ouagadougou and with the laboratory of crystallography, magnetic resonance and modelling of Nancy. A laboratory of mine and geology exists in our university. There is also a society for the mining development in Ivory Coast. We will be able to reinforce our collaboration with these two structures.

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Crystallography in Cameroon

Crystallography underpins most experimental sciences. In this view, the Ministry of Higher Education in Cameroon has given by law to the academic orientation in Cameroon a particular importance to this discipline. Priority was given to the training of young physicists, chemists, biologists and students of earth sciences. However, with the economic crisis that has disrupted the development of African countries and particularly Cameroon in the 1990s, the lack of equipment has had an impact on the skills targeted by these teachings and scientific research. In this context, the IUCr Crystallography in Africa initiative and the activities for celebration of the IYCr have been welcome.

In this initiative, arrangements were made by the University of Dschang (Cameroon) to contribute to achieve the mission of the IUCr. Some of these achievements are the creation in 2012 of the Cameroonian Crystallography Association (CCA) and the establishment of a partnership between the University of Dschang, IUCr and Bruker AXS. The first actions of this partnership were the installation of a powder diffractometer D5000 at the University of Dschang in 2014, the organization of two schools and sub-regional workshops at the University of Dschang. Could be also mentioned the reinforcement of the capacities of some researchers and professors from Cameroon and from other countries in Sub Saharan Africa in well-equipped laboratories, and through the attendance of schools and high-level seminars. The impact of these actions is already visible on the training of young students at the University of Dschang. These benefits are also expected in the materials and mining industries throughout the sub-region. A project is currently under study for the installation of a single-crystal diffractometer and other equipment to create later, a sub-regional center for analyses at the University of Dschang.

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Crystallography in Tunisia
Habib Boughzala
Université El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia; habib.boughzala@ipein.rnu.tn

The first laboratory of crystallography in Tunisia was created in 1979 in the Faculty of Science of Tunis by Prof Tahar Jouini. In the 1990s many other labs were created in Sfax, Monastir, Bizerte, etc. with modest diffraction equipment working on several fields, for example apatite, cements, zeolites, phosphates, arsenates, hybrids, organics and organometallics.

Actually, if the industry is quite devoid of diffraction hardware, X-ray facilities are mainly installed in the university. In the north, the Faculty of Science of Bizerte is endowed with Bruker Mach3 and D8 diffractometers. In the capital Tunis a CAD4 and a D8 are installed in the chemistry department and a PANalytical powder diffractometer in the Geology Department. In Monastir, a Mach3 is installed in the Chemistry Department. The south of the country is also equipped by a Bruker D8, a Siemens D5000 and a Bruker CCD diffractometer. More recently, a Siemens D5000 is running in the Physics Department in the Faculty of Science of Gabes.

On the other hand, crystallography is present in fundamental teaching since 1st year university and the teacher's level is good. The Tunisian Crystallographic Association (TCA) organizes every 2 years the Tunisian Crystallographic Meeting, and the Tunisian Chemical Society (SCT) organizes also a biennial Solid State Meeting.

Nowadays, more than 100 confirmed Tunisian crystallographers are distributed in a dozen labs and struggling - along with a total absence of political will - to promote science and particularly purchase new (or used) diffraction hardware. Furthermore, maintenance and management of the heavy equipment is poor. Access to the European diffraction facilities (e.g. ESRF, PSI) is becoming more and more difficult. Only tentative partnership programmes between Tunisian and foreign labs can give some satisfaction to young Tunisian researchers.

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Activities of Algerian crystallographers in 2014-2015
Hocine Merazig, University of Constantine 1, Algeria; hmerazig@gmail.com

Following the example of many countries of the world, Algeria has actively participated in the celebration of the IYCr. The IYCr was inaugurated by the Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research, an act that shows the importance that our highest authorities accord to crystallography. Photos from the opening session will be broadcast on our university website.

The Algerian Association of Crystallography acts tirelessly to promote crystallography in Algeria. Thus, in order to make this discipline known to a large public and to attract young talent, open-door days, aimed at high school and university students, were held at the University of Constantine in April and May 2014 by the Algerian Crystallography Association. The atmosphere was relaxed, the discussions were candid and the students' interest in the subject was evident. Minicompetitions were organized. The audience was large and the experience was successful. The General Secretary at the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research was present at this event. He expressed his satisfaction and said he was impressed by the ambient dynamism.

A caravan "discovering the crystal" travelled all around the country in the autumn of 2014. A poster exhibition, demonstrations and lectures have punctuated the visits to several university cities, both those where crystallography is already well implanted and those where crystallography is in an emerging phase. The Secretary General at the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, whose interest in these events is very high, strongly encouraged the continuation of such initiatives.

Continuing its public awareness programme, the Algerian Association of Crystallography, under the auspices of the IUCr, Bruker and UNESCO, is organizing an OpenLab from 9 to 14 May 2015 at the University of Constantine. Lectures on crystallography, from the founding concepts to the more complex concepts, and an initiation in the use of computer equipment and in the use of data-processing programs will be presented in this school.

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Current situation of crystallography in Kenya
Patricia W. Gitari
University of Nairobi, Kenya; patricia.gitari@uonbi.ac.ke

In Kenya, X-ray diffractometers are few, mainly in Government laboratories, for example, Geology and Mines; privately and publicly funded research centres; and in a few academic institutions. Crystallographic techniques in the country mainly have applications in determination of bulk mineral assemblages in rocks, clays, ores, particulates and metallurgical products. Tertiary institutions have adopted crystallography in science curricula, including physics, biology, chemistry, geology and metallurgy. These courses have proven to be very popular with both undergraduate and postgraduate students due to the dynamic nature of the technique. However, research activities have been hindered by a lack of modern equipment and poor maintenance of the existing ones.

The Government of Kenya has committed to a substantial increase in funding of science, technology, innovation with the enactment of STI (Act No. 28 of 2013). However, with most research activities leaning towards solving problems that have a direct impact on the socio-economic status of the citizens, a large percentage of funding is allocated to agriculture, health, water and sanitation. This is largely due to the fact that scientists have not made enough effort to sensitise policy makers to the role of crystallography in the achievement of development goals of the country.

One solution to this low awareness of crystallography in Kenya is to encourage international collaboration within the region and beyond. The East African Community (EAC) is the regional intergovernmental organisation of the Republics of Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, the United Republic of Tanzania and the Republic of Uganda. An initiative driven by the East African countries would reach a much wider population, and consolidation of resources will reduce the overall cost of equipping and maintaining centres of excellence.

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Crystallography in Morocco
Abdelmalek Thalal
Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco; thalal@uca.ma

In Morocco a major effort has been made during the last decade to develop and promote science education and scientific research in general, especially crystallography. Analysis and characterization centers have been established at several universities to optimize equipment and create synergy between researchers [1].

Morocco has a notable scientific and human potential in this field. About more than 400 researchers have direct or indirect connections with crystallography. They use X-rays, the scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy as means of investigation equipment. Researchers are working in physics, chemistry, geology and biology laboratories in universities, engineering colleges and other institutes of technology [2].

Crystallography is taught from the second academic year. Students receive, each year, basic knowledge in crystallography; a large number of them graduate in physics or chemistry. A significant number continue their postgraduate studies in Masters and PhD in the areas using crystallography [3].

Research in crystallography covers a broad spectrum of activity, particularly in materials science and inorganic chemistry. Over the last years, crystallography has begun to attract researchers working in the field of organic chemistry, biochemistry and medicinal chemistry. Moreover, recently crystallography has become an important part of research on art and cultural heritage [2].

In 2002, Moroccan crystallographers gathered to found the Moroccan Association of Crystallography. This association is a network for all its adherents; it contributes to the effort of equipment and maintenance, organizes schools and conferences and provides to the Moroccan universities the main scientific journals in crystallography. It also contributes to the training of young researchers, both in theoretical and practical crystallography and in crystallographic software. The Moroccan Crystallographic Association has been a member of the European Crystallographic Association since 2002, and recently member of the IUCr. It participates actively in the program "Crystallography in Africa" launched by the IUCr. The Moroccan Crystallographic Association, which spearheaded the IYCr2014 project, has celebrated the International Year of Crystallography by organizing the First African School of Crystallography, three OpenLabs for French-speaking Africans, crystallization contests in schools and several large public conferences.

References

[1] Ministry of Higher Education, Scientific Research http://www.enssup.gov.ma
[2] Sources: archive Moroccan universities http://www.maroc-adresses.com/
[3] Moroccan Institute for Scientific and Technical Information http://toubkal.imist.ma

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Crystallographic activities in Egypt during IYCr2014
Karimat El-Sayed
Ain-Shams University, Cairo, Egypt; elkarimat@yahoo.com

Crystallography started in Egypt in 1952 thanks to three great crystallographers working in three places: Alexandria University, the National Research Center and Assuit University. In 1976, crystallographers were able to establish the Egyptian Committee on Crystallography and in 1978, Egypt became a member of the IUCr. In 1995, the Egyptian Society of Crystallography and its Applications (ESCA) was founded.

Today we have many crystallographers, who are specialized in almost all fields of crystallography (powder diffraction, single crystal diffraction, protein crystallography, EXAFS, X-ray spectroscopy), and they are using synchrotron radiation in their work.

During IYCr2014, we were able to arrange four activities:

1. Symposium on XRD and Structural Characterization of Materials at El-Minia University (12-13 March)
2. Training Course on Crystal Growth for secondary school teachers at the National Research Center (9-10 September)
3. Symposium on the Structural Role of Crystallography in Pharmacological Sciences at the National Research Center(24 September)
4. Workshop on Synchrotron Radiation in Nanomaterials Research at Hergada (15-18 November).

More details on these activities are available on the IYCr2014 website.
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Crystallographic teaching and research experiences in DR Congo
Colin Groom and Juliette J. M. Pradon
Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre, Cambridge, UK; pradon@ccdc.cam.ac.uk

Crystallographers have done a superb job in publishing the results of their endeavours and making resulting structures available to all. This has been aided by domain specific databases, such as the Protein Data Bank and Cambridge Structural Database (CSD) - the world's repository for organic and organometallic small-molecule crystal structures. Powerful software has also been developed to allow structures to be accessed, searched and analysed - leading to a myriad of research opportunities, both for well-funded universities and those operating in more challenging environments.

One such institute is the University of Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The structural chemistry research group, coordinated by Professor Zéphirin G. Yav, has collaborated with the CCDC for several years, using the CSD System in teaching and research. Visits from CCDC staff to the University of Kinshasa have helped train educators and students in structural chemistry, and the joint appointment of graduate students has led to successful research projects on the use of the CSD system and other computational chemistry resources to study intermolecular interactions involving the element selenium.

This presentation, timed to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the CSD, will show how structural chemistry research can be successful in difficult environments.

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G. Paolucci
SESAME (Synchrotron-light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East)
Allan, Jordan; giorgio.paolucci@sesame.org.jo

SESAME is an international research organization located in Jordan, in the Middle East. Based on a synchrotron radiation source, it will allow scientists from the region to access a world-class research infrastructure to boost their research and scientific knowledge. At the same time its international nature will allow scientists with different cultures, different religions and different experiences to interact with each other. It is therefore an excellent opportunity for regional development. Foreseen applications in crystallography will be highlighted. The organisational structure of SESAME will also be described, emphasising how this project is expected to enhance cooperation and mutual comprehension in the Middle East.

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Areej Abuhammad
Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
a.abuhammad@gmail.com

Crystallography is the most powerful method for 3D structure determination at an atomic level. The basic principles of X-ray crystallography were discovered by Max von Laue and the Braggs father and son. Since then, this method seemed appealing to determine the 3D structures of important biological molecules. The development and implementation of high-energy synchrotron radiation sources have allowed advances on this field.

An effort to transfer the cutting-edge technology of crystallography to Jordan started in 2014. A national project to establish the Protein Crystallisation Facility has been implemented to be a cornerstone of crystallography. Jordan has the potential to be a research centre in this field as it has two big radiation facilities under construction: The Synchrotron Facility [Synchrotron-light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East (SESAME)] and the Jordan Research and Training Reactor (JRTR).

As is the case in most developing counties, scientific research funding is not a priority in Jordan due to limited resources and escalating development challenges. To develop research related to crystallography it is necessary to have very expensive equipment, which is usually beyond the capability of individual researchers. Because of that, many researchers are reluctant to carry out studies on this field. Therefore, a national facility can be envisioned as an innovative, synergistic research centre that will help researchers to carry out experiments and undergo training. However, establishing such a facility would benefit from the support of international organizations.

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Alison Edwards
Bragg Institute, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organization
Lucas Heights, NSW, Australia; Alison.Edwards@ansto.gov.au

With the completion of our second major instrument building program - the NBI2 - ANSTO is looking to the future of our neutron scattering facilities and the potential to extend operations through the building of a second guide hall at the OPAL reactor as envisaged in the original site planning. The International Year of Crystallography opened up many additional opportunities for ANSTO to build on its links with one of our main user communities; crystallography, in its many and diverse forms, underpins a significant proportion of our instruments. The Year also provided opportunities for our staff to take our science to the community at local, regional and global levels. While we have already established a program with scientists from Taiwan building and operating one of our neutron beam instruments - SIKA, a cold beam triple axis spectrometer - we are now looking at opportunities to extend this type of international collaboration which can facilitate broader access to specialist techniques such as neutron scattering. The strengthened connections between crystallographers is a wonderful legacy which we hope will support our science and scientists in an exciting future.

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Florence Porcher
Laboratoire Léon Brillouin, UMR12 CEA-CNRS, CEA/Saclay, France; florence.porcher@cea.fr

The Laboratoire Léon Brillouin (LLB) is the French research center in charge of developing neutron science in the country. Sitting in Saclay, approximately 25 km from Paris, it operates some 20 state-of-the-art neutron scattering instruments around the 14 MW Orphée reactor.

As a service institute, the LLB makes its facilities and expertise available to visiting scientists. Every year, it welcomes some 600 researchers from over 20 countries who come to Saclay to perform experiments on the spectrometers. Research focuses primarily on fundamental science including condensed matter physics and chemistry, soft matter, life and materials sciences ... but can also deal with the R&D departments of private industrial partners. About half of the spectrometers are in fact diffractometers with research topics ranging from fuel cells to (multi)ferroics, superconductors, guest-host systems, metallurgy, nano-objects and spintronics.

In charge of the French contribution to the future European neutron source, ESS, in Sweden, LLB will be partner for the design and construction of instruments, among which a new generation of time-of-flight diffractometers which will also open new perspectives in neutron crystallography.

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Jonathan Agbenyega
International Union of Crystallography, Chester, UK; ja@iucr.org

The 155 now famous crystallographers that took part in the first formal meeting of the IUCr at Harvard University in July 1948 probably represented only part of the crystallographic community at that time.

It is thought that the World Directory of Crystallographers and of Other Scientists Employing Crystallographic Methods (WDC) must have been conceived as an organizational tool in the early days to facilitate international contacts and to keep track of the growing number of crystallographers all over the world. Back in 1957, the number of crystallographers in the directory was not very large, 2255 coming from 52 countries, and amongst these original crystallographers there was a strong feeling of belonging to a single family.

This feeling of belonging still remains today and we have well over 12,000 searchable entries; however, many other variables have changed, and the IUCr as a scholarly Union needs to embrace these changes and develop new tools and functionality to ensure we continue to deliver a valuable service to our community in the 21st century.

Our publishing partner, John Wiley and Sons, recently conducted a membership survey which was sent to over 1.2 million research professionals, across 75 disciplines. It was sent both to members and non-members of societies and scholarly associations. In scope and scale, it is unprecedented in the academic and scholarly association market. The goal of this project is to learn more about how research professionals such as yourself view scholarly associations such as the IUCr, how you interact with them and how we can provide you with the services you need to conduct your research efficiently and communicate your results to the widest possible audience. Wiley plans to repeat this study annually in order to gather trends in the market and changes in behaviour over time.

With a greater knowledge of crystallographers' needs and expectations, the WDC will be better placed to work towards becoming more valued and relevant. And, by knowing more about why you refresh, join, or do not join, scholarly associations, we can continue to grow and provide for our communities.

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Brian McMahon
International Union of Crystallography, Chester, UK; bm@iucr.org

Among the aims of an International Scientific Union must be the safeguarding and onward transmission of the knowledge that is both the result of scientific inquiry and the basis for future explorations. As Isaac Newton put it, "If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." The IUCr makes these aims explicit in its mission statement (www.iucr.org): promote international publication of crystallographic research, ... facilitate standardization of methods, units, nomenclatures and symbols, and ... form a focus for the relations of crystallography to other sciences. Much effort has been spent by the IUCr since its beginnings in 1947 to realise these aims. Alone among Scientific Unions, it publishes a range of primary research journals, and is responsible for International Tables for Crystallography, a series of reference books that encapsulate both fundamental data and best scientific practice in crystallography and related structural sciences. A dedicated Commission is responsible for Crystallographic Nomenclature, and other standardisation efforts are the responsibility of all Commissions and the Committee responsible for maintaining the CIF information exchange and archival standard. In the computer age, electronic resources are increasingly important, not only for archiving and providing access to scientific results, but also for facilitating the peer review and data validation processes, and for allowing access to, and reuse of, the experimental data supporting crystal structures and other scientific outcomes. The IUCr web sites also provide facilities for the community of crystallographers to contact and interact with each other, using appropriate social media and other tools. The public outreach activities of the IUCr during the International Year of Crystallography have opened new avenues for communication and education. Meanwhile the accession of new member countries to the IUCr continues to bring younger scientific communities together worldwide. As the scientific world expands, the IUCr remains committed to its mission of preserving and sharing knowledge, and of passing it on to the generations of scientists yet to come.

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